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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES9PREFACE11CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION11.1What is Contrastive Linguistics?11.1.1The Name and Nature of Contrastive Linguistics21.1.1.1Linguistics21.1.1.2Contrastive Linguistics (Contrastive Analysis)41.1.2Micro-Contrastive Linguistics and Macro-Contrastive Linguistics101.2Why Contrastive Linguistics?111.2.1The Theoretical Need for Contrastive Linguistics121.2.2The Practical Need for Contrastive Linguistics131.3The History and Development of Contrastive Linguistics18Questions for Discussion and Research26CHAPTER 2 THE PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS282.1Basic Assumptions and Hypotheses Underlying Contrastive Analysis (CA)282.1.1The Psychological Basis of Contrastive Analysis: Transfer292.1.2The Strong and Weak Versions of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis302.1.3The Predictive Power of Contrastive Analysis312.2Theoretical Contrastive Analysis and Applied Contrastive Analysis322.3Criteria for Comparison372.3.1The Surface Structure (SS)382.3.2The Deep Structure (DS)402.3.3Translation Equivalence442.4Procedures of Contrastive Analysis49Questions for Discussion and Research50CHAPTER 3 PHONETIC AND PHONOLOGICAL CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS523.1Phonetics and Phonology523.2Contrastive Phonetics543.2.1Articulatory Phonetics543.2.1.1Vocal organs (articulators) and the dynamics of voice production543.2.1.2The modulation of speech sounds583.2.2Acoustic Phonetics603.2.2.1Frequency603.2.2.2Amplitude of vibration613.2.2.3Timbre613.2.3Auditory Phonetics623.3Contrastive Phonology653.3.1Phonological Contrastive Analysis653.3.1.1The functional statuses of comparable speech sounds in different languages653.3.1.2Pronunciation problems caused by phonemic asymmetries and by allophonic differences663.3.1.3The functional loads of comparable phonological contrasts in different languages673.3.2Two Phonological Models683.3.2.1The taxonomic or structural phonology683.3.2.2Generative phonology693.4Suprasegmental Contrastive Analysis713.4.1The Contrastive Analysis of Pitch723.4.1.1Tone723.4.1.2Intonation733.4.2The Contrastive Analysis of Juncture75Questions for Discussion and Research76CHAPTER 4 LEXICAL CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS784.1Contrastive Lexical Morphology794.1.1Lexical/Derivational Morphology and Inflectional Morphology794.1.2Morpheme804.1.2.1Free morpheme804.1.2.2Bound morpheme804.1.2.2.1 Affix804.1.2.2.2 Combining form814.1.2.3Stem (base morpheme) and root814.1.3A Comparison of the Makeup of English and Chinese Word Stock824.2Contrastive Lexical Semantics844.2.1The Motivation (Internal Form) of Words854.2.1.1Phonetic motivation864.2.1.2Graphemic motivation864.2.1.3Morphological motivation874.2.1.4Semantic motivation874.2.1.5A contrastive analysis of the morphological motivation of English, German, and Chinese words874.2.2Sense Relationships914.2.2.1Syntagmatic semantic relationship: Collocation924.2.2.2Paradigmatic semantic relationships944.2.2.2.1 Synonymy944.2.2.2.2 Antonymy954.2.2.2.3 Hyponymy964.2.2.2.4 Incompatibility984.2.2.3Lexical fields and lexical gaps984.2.3Semantic Features1034.3Three Active Areas1074.3.1Anthropology1084.3.2Translation1144.3.3Bilingual Lexicography118Questions for Discussion and Research119CHAPTER 5 GRAMMATICAL CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS1225.1The Concept of Grammar1225.2The Contrastive Analysis of Inflectional Morphology1245.2.1Grammatical Categories1265.2.1.1Aspect1265.2.1.2Case1285.2.1.3Gender1295.2.1.4Mood1295.2.1.5Number1295.2.1.6Person1305.2.1.7Tense1305.2.1.8Voice1305.2.2A Contrastive Study of the Chinese and English Case Systems1315.3Syntactic Contrastive Analysis1355.3.1The Structural Approach (Surface-structure Contrasts)1355.3.2The Weaknesses of the Structural Approach1395.3.3The Generative Approaches1405.3.3.1The Transformational Grammarian approach (For deep-structure contrasts)1415.3.3.2The Case Grammarian approach (For deeper-structure contrasts)147Questions for Discussion and Research154CHAPTER 6 TEXTUAL CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS1566.1Text and Discourse1586.2The Defining Characteristics of the Text1596.3The Contrastive Analysis of Textual Cohesion1626.3.1Semantic Cohesion1646.3.1.1Reference1646.3.1.2Substitution1676.3.1.3Ellipsis1686.3.1.4Conjunction1706.3.1.5Lexical relationships ("lexical cohesion")1746.3.2Structural Cohesion1756.3.2.1Parallelism1756.3.2.2Comparison1806.3.2.3Information structure1806.3.2.3.1 Theme and Rheme1816.3.2.3.2 Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)1826.3.2.3.3 Topic and Comment1836.3.3Different Languages Preferring Different Cohesive Devices1926.4The Contrastive Analysis of Textual Coherence192Questions for Discussion and Research200CHAPTER 7 PRAGMATIC CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS2037.1Speech Act Theory2037.1.1Speech Acts2047.1.1.1Performatives and constatives2047.1.1.2Three kinds of speech acts2047.1.1.3Five basic types of illocutionary acts2057.1.2Felicity Conditions2067.2Conversational Interaction2077.2.1The Structural Components of Conversation2087.2.1.1Openings2087.2.1.2The maintaining of a conversation2107.2.1.3Closings2157.2.2Principles of Conversational Organization2177.2.2.1The Cooperative Principle (Be Clear)2177.2.2.1.1 Conversational maxims2177.2.2.1.2 Conversational implicature2187.2.2.2The Rules of Politeness (Be Polite)2217.2.2.2.1 Rule 1: Don't impose on your hearer2217.2.2.2.2 Rule 2: Give the hearer options2237.2.2.2.3 Rule 3: Make the hearer feel good: Be friendly223Questions for Discussion and Research225REFERENCES227INDEX235